How to Calculate Activation Energy

How to Calculate Activation Energy Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be supplied in order for a chemical reaction to proceed. The example problem below demonstrates how to determine the activation energy of a reaction from reaction rate constants at different temperatures. Activation Energy Problem A second-order reaction was observed. The  reaction rate constant at three degrees Celsius was found to be 8.9 x 10-3 L/mol and 7.1 x 10-2 L/mol at 35 degrees Celsius. What is the activation energy of this reaction? Solution The  activation energy can be determined using the equation:ln(k2/k1) Ea/R x (1/T1 - 1/T2)whereEa the activation energy of the reaction in J/molR the ideal  gas constant 8.3145 J/K ·molT1 and T2 absolute temperatures (in Kelvin)k1 and k2 the reaction rate constants at T1 and T2 Step 1: Convert temperatures from degrees Celsius to KelvinT degrees Celsius 273.15T1 3 273.15T1 276.15 KT2 35 273.15T2 308.15 Kelvin Step 2 - Find Ealn(k2/k1) Ea/R x (1/T1 - 1/T2)ln(7.1 x 10-2/8.9 x 10-3) Ea/8.3145 J/K ·mol x (1/276.15 K - 1/308.15 K)ln(7.98) Ea/8.3145 J/K ·mol x 3.76 x 10-4 K-12.077 Ea(4.52 x 10-5 mol/J)Ea 4.59 x 104 J/molor in kJ/mol, (divide by 1000)Ea 45.9 kJ/mol Answer: The activation energy for this reaction is 4.59 x 104 J/mol or 45.9 kJ/mol. How to Use a Graph to Find Activation Energy Another way to calculate the activation energy of a reaction is to graph ln k (the rate constant) versus 1/T (the inverse of the temperature in Kelvin). The plot will form a straight line expressed by the equation: m - Ea/R where m is the slope of the line, Ea is the activation energy, and R is the ideal gas constant of 8.314 J/mol-K. If you took temperature measurements in Celsius or Fahrenheit, remember to convert them to Kelvin before calculating 1/T and plotting the graph. If you were to make a plot of the energy of the reaction versus the reaction coordinate, the difference between the energy of the reactants and the products would be ΔH, while the excess energy (the part of the curve above that of the products) would be the activation energy. Keep in mind, while most reaction rates increase with temperature, there are some cases where the rate of reaction decreases with temperature. These reactions have negative activation energy. So, while you should expect activation energy to be a positive number, be aware that its possible for it to be negative as well. Who Discovered Activation Energy? Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius proposed the term activation energy in 1880 to define the minimum energy needed for a set of chemical reactants to interact and form products. In a diagram, activation energy is graphed as the height of an energy barrier between two minimum points of potential energy. The minimum points are the energies of the stable reactants and products. Even exothermic reactions, such as burning a candle, require energy input. In the case of combustion, a lit match or extreme heat starts the reaction. From there, the heat evolved from the reaction supplies the energy to make it self-sustaining.

Battle of New Orleans in the American Civil War

Battle of New Orleans in the American Civil War The capture of New Orleans by Union forces occurred during the American Civil War (1861-1865) and saw Flag Officer David G. Farragut run his fleet past Forts Jackson and St. Philip on April 24, 1862 before capturing New Orleans the following day. Early in the Civil War, Union General-in-Chief Winfield Scott devised the Anaconda Plan for defeating the Confederacy. A hero of the Mexican-American War, Scott called for the blockade of the Southern coast as well as the capture of the Mississippi River. This latter move was designed to split the Confederacy in two and prevent supplies from moving east and west. To New Orleans The first step to securing the Mississippi was the capture of New Orleans. The Confederacys largest city and busiest port, New Orleans was defended by two large forts, Jackson and St. Philip, situated on the river below the city (Map). While forts had historically held an advantage over naval vessels, successes in 1861 at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal led Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus V. Fox to believe that an attack up the Mississippi would be feasible. In his view, the forts could be reduced by naval gunfire and then assaulted by a relatively small landing force. Foxs plan was initially opposed by US Army general-in-chief George B. McClellan who believed that such an operation would require 30,000 to 50,000 men. Viewing a prospective expedition against New Orleans as a diversion, he was unwilling to release large numbers of troops as he was planning what would become the Peninsula Campaign. To obtain the needed landing force, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles approached  Major General Benjamin Butler. A political appointee, Butler was able to use his connections to secure 18,000 men and received command of the force on February 23, 1862. Fast Facts: Capture of New Orleans Conflict: American Civil War (1861-1865)Dates: April 24, 1862Armies Commanders:UnionFlag Officer David G. Farragut17 warships19 mortar boatsConfederateMajor General Mansfield LovellForts Jackson St. Philip2 ironclads, 10 gunboats Farragut The task of eliminating the forts and taking the city fell to Flag Officer David G. Farragut. A long-serving officer who had taken part in the War of 1812 and Mexican-American War, he had been raised by Commodore David Porter following the death of his mother. Given command of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in January 1862, Farragut arrived at his new post the following month and established a base of operations on Ship Island off the coast of Mississippi. In addition to his squadron, he was provided with a fleet of mortar boats led by his foster brother, Commander David D. Porter, who had the ear of Fox. Assessing the Confederate defenses, Farragut initially planned to reduce the forts with mortar fire before advancing his fleet up the river. Rear Admiral David G. Farragut. US Naval History and Heritage Command   Preparations Moving to the Mississippi River in mid-March, Farragut began moving his ships over the bar at its mouth. Here complications were encountered as the water proved three feet shallower than expected.  As a result, the steam frigate USS Colorado (52 guns) had to be left behind. Rendezvousing at Head of Passes, Farraguts ships and Porters mortar boats moved up the river towards the forts. Arriving, Farragut was confronted by Forts Jackson and St. Philip, as well as a chain barricade and four smaller batteries. Sending forward a detachment from the US Coast Survey, Farragut made determinations on where to place the mortar fleet. Confederate Preparations From the outset of the war, plans for the defense of New Orleans were hampered by the fact that the Confederate leadership in Richmond believed that the greatest threats to the city would come from the north. As such, military equipment and manpower were shifted up the Mississippi to defensive points such as Island Number 10.  In southern Louisiana, the defenses were commanded by Major General Mansfield Lovell who had his headquarters in New Orleans. Immediate oversight of the forts fell to Brigadier General Johnson K. Duncan. Supporting the static defenses were the River Defense Fleet consisting of six gunboats, two gunboats from the Louisiana Provisional Navy, as well as two gunboats from the Confederate Navy and the ironclads CSS Louisiana (12) and CSS Manassas (1). The former, while a powerful ship, was not complete and was used as a floating battery during the battle. Though numerous, the Confederates forces on the water lacked a unified command structure. Reducing the Forts Though skeptical about their effectiveness in reducing the forts, Farragut advanced Porters mortar boats on April 18.  Firing non-stop for five days and nights, the mortars pounded the forts, but were unable to completely disable their batteries. As the shells rained down, sailors from USS Kineo (5), USS Itasca (5), and USS Pinola (5) rowed forward and opened a gap in the chain barricade on April 20. On April 23, Farragut, impatient with the bombardments results, began planning to run his fleet past the forts. Ordering his captains to drape their vessels in chain, iron plate, and other protective materials, Farragut divided the fleet into three sections for the coming action (Map). There were led by Farragut and Captains Theodorus Bailey and Henry H. Bell. Running the Gauntlet At 2:00 AM on April 24, the Union fleet began moving upstream, with the first division, led by Bailey, coming under fire an hour and fifteen minutes later. Racing ahead, the first division was soon clear of the forts, however Farraguts second division encountered more difficulty. As his flagship, USS Hartford (22) cleared the forts, it was forced to turn to avoid a Confederate fire raft and ran aground. Seeing the Union ship in trouble, the Confederates redirected the fire raft towards Hartford causing a fire to break out on the vessel. Moving quickly, the crew extinguished the flames and was able to back the ship out of the mud. USS Hartford (1858). US Naval History Heritage Command Above the forts, the Union ships encountered the River Defense Fleet and Manassas. While the gunboats were easily dealt with, Manassas attempted to ram USS Pensacola (17) but missed. Moving downstream, it was accidentally fired upon by the forts before moving to strike USS Brooklyn (21). Ramming the Union ship, Manassas failed to strike a fatal blow as it hit Brooklyns full coal bunkers. By the time the fighting ended, Manassas was downstream of the Union fleet and unable to make enough speed against the current to ram effectively. As a result, its captain ran it aground where it was destroyed by Union gun fire. The City Surrenders Having successfully cleared the forts with minimal losses, Farragut began steaming upstream to New Orleans. Arriving off the city on April 25, he immediately demanded its surrender. Sending a force ashore, Farragut was told by the mayor that only Major General Lovell could surrender the city. This was countered when Lovell informed the mayor that he was retreating and that the city was not his to surrender. After four days of this, Farragut ordered his men to hoist the US flag over the customs house and city hall. During this time, the garrisons of the Forts Jackson and St. Philip, now cut off from the city, surrendered. On May 1, Union troops under Butler arrived to take official custody of the city. Aftermath The battle to capture New Orleans cost Farragut a mere 37 killed and 149 wounded. Though he was initially unable to get all of his fleet past the forts, he succeeded in getting 13 ships upstream which enabled him to capture the Confederacys greatest port and center of trade. For Lovell, the fighting along the river cost him around 782 killed and wounded, as well as approximately 6,000 captured. The loss of the city effectively ended Lovells career. After the fall of New Orleans, Farragut was able to take control of much of the lower Mississippi and succeeded in capturing Baton Rouge and Natchez. Pressing upstream, his ships reached as far as Vicksburg, MS before being halted by Confederate batteries. After attempting a brief siege, Farragut withdrew back down the river to prevent being trapped by falling water levels.

Rhetorical Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rhetorical Analysis Paper - Essay Example To conspire is coming together in a secret agreement in order to perform unlawful actions as a means of accomplishing lawful ends. Many scholars opt to use term conspiracy theory as a means of finding the secrets in either military, political deeds or banking industry that are aimed at taking away either power or freedom from citizens (Elinoff par 2-4). Many scholars have reasons why conspiracies are planned in society. According to them, conspiracies are a way of explaining power relations in social groups found in societies. Also, they are to bring to light the evil forces that are perceived to exist within these societies. Conspiracy theories touch on the obscurity found in much official documentation. They accompany most remarkable events, whether social or political. Theories give people a chance to pour out their feelings towards a given puzzled situation. Similarly, they allow people to speak out on what they believe is the real explanation of the unknown situation, thereby letting their powerless nature be known to many. This helps in avoiding instances of uncertainty thus people are able to create sense out of a given situation. On the other hand, conspiracy theories pin down the existence of noteworthy topics like the way science works (Jolley par n.d). This in return may lead to harmful repercussions to the entire public. People choose to believe in the conspiracy theories for one main reason; they feel that whatever is being given to them is only a fallacy. Most of the known conspiracies are created as a way of relieving tension in a given issue. In addition, they are created in order to hide some unclean mess within the involved group. In return, people tend to believe in them sometimes leading to the cropping up of many more theories on the same issue. Most of these theories are skeptical in their explanations since skeptics are crucial in attaining certain

The public should legally be able to view the sex offender registry to Research Paper

The public should legally be able to view the sex offender registry to protect their family - Research Paper Example Sex offender registry is where the people who have been convicted of sexual offences are recorded. The records are normally held in police offices, courts or the sheriffs’ offices but are nowadays available in a national registry as well online in the National Sexual Offenders Public Registry. They are also available in the Federal Bureau of Investigation websites by county and state. Any individual can conduct a search of the sexual offenders by state, address, and name among other search criteria. The information on this registry is updated as frequently as the information is got from the sexual offender who has to be reporting to the nearest police station and update his or her information at least once every year. Debate has risen over the sex offender registry all around the country with some people advocating for its removal from public visibility while others want it to remain and even keep on being updated so that they can remain alert and aware of their neighbours and friends. The pros and cons of this debate are discussed below in detail and they include issues such as stigmatization, family breakups, trauma to children, living in fear and forever being regarded as a criminal for the cons. The pros of having a sex offender registry are: knowledge, caution, and self-protection, early prevention among others (Tofte and Jamie 46). The sex offenders’ registry remains to be among the greatest protection and prevention mechanism parents have against sex offenders and sex predators. Parents especially with younger children are better able to protect their children against sex offenders once they have a better knowledge of whom they are. Research has indicated that majority of the people who commit sex offences are not strangers but are family friends or neighbours (Maddan, 54). Having a registry where the parents can be able to verify whether their neighbours or family friends are sexual offenders is

Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece Essay Example for Free

Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece Essay William Shakespeare was born in the Hole Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire on April 23, 1564. He was the first son and third child of John Shakespeare, a leather tanner and a maker of gloves, and Mary Arden Shakespeare. Williams parents were married around 1558 and had a total of eight children, three of which died in childhood. Williams family had been living in the area of Warwickshire for many years and was respected. Williams father was at one time prosperous and elected to municipal offices. He was a member of the Stratford council in 1557 and appointed mayor in 1568. John was not without fault, though, and four times from 1570 to 1572 he faced prosecution for money lending and illegally buying wool. He fell into hard times financially and stopped buying property, went into dept, and even mortgaged part of his wifes inheritance. Despite financial difficulties in the family, the boy Williams education was not neglected, and he went to the local school in Stratford. Some scholars questions whether a single could have written all the great literature attributes to Shakespeare, citing his schooling as proof that he was poorly educated, but their assumption is probable false. ( ) The teachers in school the William had attended had degrees from Oxford, and the education that the boy received was likely very good. Exactly what young William did after his years of schooling is not really clear, but we do know that during the winter of 1582, at the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, the eldest daughter of Richard Hathaway. She was 26, much older than her teenage husband, and pregnant by him. The church announcement of the marriage was waived on November 28, 1582 and less than six months later their first child, Susanna, was baptized in Stratford church on May 26, 1583. Early in 1585, Anne gave birth to twins: Hament, their only son (who died young), and Judith, their second daughter. With a wife and three kids to maintain, and still dependent on his father one of the London acting companies that had been touring in Stratford. Shakespeare moved to London in 1585, where he was very successful. He was an actor and a writer and even owned his own playhouse. He was very respected man there. He was the first playwright to have his formal biography written and published with his works. By 1592 William was firmly established in the big city of London. He was all ready the author of ten plays and successful enough to inspire jealous and be called an upstart crow by a fellow dramatist, Robert Greene. ( ) Between 1592-1594 all the theatres were closed by an outbreak of the plague. So during this time Shakespeare turned to poetry, writing sonnets and two long narrative poems: Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. When the theatres reopened in 1594, Shakespeare joined the newly formed Lord Chamberlains Men, and was entitled to a share of the profits. We was an acting troupe under the patronage of QueenElizabeth?

Hydrogen Essays -- essays research papers

Hydrogen Hydrogen is a tasteless, odorless, colorless gas. Hydrogen is found in group 1 and period 1 on the periodic table. Hydrogen is classified as a nonmetal on the periodic table. The symbol for hydrogen is represented by an H, its atomic number is 1, and its atomic weight is 1.0079. The hydrogen atom consists of one proton, which has a positive charge, and one electron, which has a negative charge. The term hydrogen comes from two Greek words meaning water-former. Henry Cavendish, an English scientist, discovered it in 1766. Named by Lavoisier, hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. The sun and many other stars consist of mostly hydrogen. It is the third most abundant element on earth. It is estimated that hydrogen makes up more than 90% of all the atoms or three quarters of the mass of the universe. Hydrogen plays an important part in powering the universe though both the proton-proton reaction and carbon-nitrogen cycle. Hydrogen occurs in almost all organic comp ounds. Many of the compounds found in plant and animal tissues are organic. Production of hydrogen in the U.S. alone now amounts to about 3 billion cubic feet per year. Some of the methods that hydrogen is prepared by are steam on heated carbon, decomposition of certain hydrocarbons with heat, action of sodium or potassium hydroxide on aluminum, or displacement from acids by certain metals. Hydrogen may be condensed to a liquid that boils at -257.87Â °C and freezes at -259.14Â °C. Hydrogen ... Hydrogen Essays -- essays research papers Hydrogen Hydrogen is a tasteless, odorless, colorless gas. Hydrogen is found in group 1 and period 1 on the periodic table. Hydrogen is classified as a nonmetal on the periodic table. The symbol for hydrogen is represented by an H, its atomic number is 1, and its atomic weight is 1.0079. The hydrogen atom consists of one proton, which has a positive charge, and one electron, which has a negative charge. The term hydrogen comes from two Greek words meaning water-former. Henry Cavendish, an English scientist, discovered it in 1766. Named by Lavoisier, hydrogen is the most abundant of all elements in the universe. The sun and many other stars consist of mostly hydrogen. It is the third most abundant element on earth. It is estimated that hydrogen makes up more than 90% of all the atoms or three quarters of the mass of the universe. Hydrogen plays an important part in powering the universe though both the proton-proton reaction and carbon-nitrogen cycle. Hydrogen occurs in almost all organic comp ounds. Many of the compounds found in plant and animal tissues are organic. Production of hydrogen in the U.S. alone now amounts to about 3 billion cubic feet per year. Some of the methods that hydrogen is prepared by are steam on heated carbon, decomposition of certain hydrocarbons with heat, action of sodium or potassium hydroxide on aluminum, or displacement from acids by certain metals. Hydrogen may be condensed to a liquid that boils at -257.87Â °C and freezes at -259.14Â °C. Hydrogen ...

Contingency Plan Essay

This amount is significant to impact the authorities, public and media when major incidents or scandals occur. The consequences of any academic or natural incidents are required to be dealt with immediately according to the circumstances. This plan includes a list of potential incidents that may possibly develop into crises in case the management disregards them. These Incidents are divided into three categories: natural, human-induced and combined, base on the nature of education institution. We concentrate specifically on the circumstances of fabricating the academic credentials of teaching staffs. The purpose of this plan is to establish proper guidelines for relevant departments in order to communicate the facts that may lead to potential crises. We intend to prompt an honest and positive image of HKBU that may affect the accuracy and wholeness of the information we announce. Yet we insist that over reaction is better than no reaction. An opportunity for the public and media’s to spread a second-guessing and unreliable report that will result in detriment of the university. This plan is to protect and even promote the entire interest of HKBU on the basis of being transparent and effective. Under any circumstances that may damage the interest of HKBU, we should identify the stakeholders and arrange proper responses to them. Internally, we have the officers of HKBU, nominated as members of Crisis Management Team (CMT). They represent the interest of HKBU and devote themselves to protect the image and profit of the university. Academic staffs should be informed timely when CMT decides to trigger the contingency plan. Externally, the Education Bureau of the HKSAR Government, students and parents are the investors and consumers of HKBU, who should be informed accordingly in terms of the circumstances. The three categories of risks will be identified and classified as: natural, human-induced and combined, based on the nature of education institution. Natural: Disasters: Fire, blizzards, wind storms, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, lightning strikes and earthquakes†¦ Technological: Equipment failure: for example; drainage system,  digital system†¦ Human-induced: In addition, this may reduce the number of new students’ enrollment and the credibility of the HKBU degree. In this point of view, a contingency plan must be prepared in advance to deal with the incident or crisis. 5. 2 Threshold of the Crisis The scenario we set in this incident is that, many news media had created a lot of negative reports regarding the fabrication of academic credentials on teaching staff. Students and their guardians suspect the teaching quality, and were displeased with the teaching staffs. The public also doubt the high valuation of HKBU. The image and credibility had been damaged by this crisis. However, the university just knew them on the reports and not made sure the authenticity of this professor’s academic credential. This crisis is not the kind of crisis, which has a single clear-cut signal. In another words, the threshold of this crisis is not a very clearly event or signal which can be notice and identified easily like fire, suicide, earthquake, and so on. So it is needed to set a series of signals as the threshold of the crisis, which in order to tell the officer that is responsible for the alarming system: the crisis is coming. We treat these assume following signals as the threshold of the crisis: the assume situation we put in this contingency plan is that, many news media had made a lot of negative reports on the fabricating academic credentials of teaching staff of The Hong Kong Baptist University already. And the influence of these media is huge, like the Apple Daily, the Ming Pao News, and the TVB. The students and their parents already had suspect on the teaching quality of HKBU, and dissatisfied with the teaching staffs. And the public also doubt the prior highly valuation of HKBU. The image and credibility had been huge damaged by this crisis. However the university just knew them on the reports and not made sure the authenticity of this professor’s academic credential. 5. 3 Specific Responsibilities of Crisis Management Team (CMT) The CMT is formed by six members and is headed by the President & Vice-Chancellor, the top level manager and final decision maker in the whole process. Each member has his/her specific responsibilities and shares the team responsibilities. Furthermore, the ultimate goal for CMT is to respond and handle crisis effectively and protect the interest of HKBU. 1. Composition of CMT Consequently, he/she must take the responsibility to activate the contingency plan. Also, he is necessary to be responsible for informing all team members together immediately and take charge of the team meetings, list and prioritize the publics that must be informed. Besides, the duty of president and vice-chancellor in the crisis is to monitor and approve PR activities and news releases. Due to the seriousness of fabricating academic credentials and the authority of the president and vice-chancellor, in this plan, he is appointed as the spokesperson to deal with news media and publics. Thus, another responsibility for president and vice-chancellor is to get media training. Vice-President(Academic) The vice-president(academic) of HKBU is in charge of the faculties and schools in academic aspects, thus the prior responsibility for him is to contact the dean of the school/faculty that is relevant to this crisis, arrange meetings with the dean, verify and understand the situation from the dean. They also need to cooperate in facts gathering. After the meeting, the responsibility for vice-president(academic) is to share the information with team members timely. Another important role for vice-president(academic) is to contact the Education Bureau of the HKSAR Government, for reports and updates the crisis. Vice-President(Administration) and Secretary The vice-president(administration) and secretary is the direct leader of Personnel Office in HKBU, while this crisis is caused by the neglection of Personnel Office, thus the main responsibility of vice-president(administration) and secretary is to coordinate with the staff in Personnel Office immediately, to ensure the effectiveness of activities in solving the crisis. Furthermore, another crucial responsibility for vice-president(administration) and secretary is to supervise and cooperate with Personnel Office in finding out the loopholes of the existing employment system, re-examining this system and amend it into a better verifying system. Vice-president(administration) and secretary need to be responsible for connecting and inviting the third party — Hong Kong Educational Level & Degree Profession Qualification Attesthion Union to verify the degree. Director of Personnel Office The principal responsibility for the director of Personnel Office is to ensure the first-hand messages are collected accurately and immediately to the Communications and Public Relations Office. Specifically, the director of Personnel Office should be responsible for leading the Personnel Office to investigate completely about the professor who are suspected in fabricate academic credentials. Director of Communications and Public Relations Office As a member of CMT, main duty for the director of Communications and Public Relations Office is to divide staffs into two groups that concentrate on internal communication and external public relations activities respectively. For the internal communication group, the director of Communications and Public Relations Office need to ensure this group can provide effective media training to spokesperson. Furthermore, this group takes charge of serving as a channel in delivering the latest news from the Personnel Office to the whole CMT. Also, they need to update new progress of the crisis to students in HKBU. For the external public relations group, the responsibility for the director of Communications and Public Relations Office is to lead this group in to preparing the media kits, sending updated information to students’ parents and contacting the media. 5. 4 Action to Be Taken 5. 4. 1Process Diagram 5. 4. 2 Specific instructions to the relevant departments 5. 4. 2. 1 Emergency arrangements within 24 hours 1) Communication and public relations office must verify the accuracy of information and current situation.

How Did Life Change for the Blacks After the Civil War? Essay

Life for Southern blacks did improve somewhat as a result of the Civil War and Reconstruction, but it was not perfect. There were still many inequalities between the two races, white and black. This essay will discuss life of blacks prior to the Civil War (1861-1865), how the blacks were involved in the war and Reconstruction (1865-1877), and how the war and Reconstruction changed the blacks’ way of life. Before the Civil War, most slaves lived on small cotton plantations. Here, the owner worked alongside them. The bigger the plantation, the more the slaves, and thus the weaker human relationship would be between master and slaves. They received, in general, harsh treatment because they were considered property. There were many social inequalities. Black Codes were passed to limit blacks’ freedom even more than it was already. They were not allowed to marry legally or learn to be literate. Slaves could be â€Å"sold down the river†, and had no privacy from their masters. They were not allowed to go outdoors after dark, get together in groups of three or more, exit their owner’s property without a written pass, or own weapons. This changed somewhat after the Civil War. The blacks played a major role in the victory of the North in the Civil War. There were many black soldiers in the war who worked behind the scenes for armies of the North. During Reconstruction, blacks exercised political power for the first time in the South. They were included as authors of new state constitutions, along with military governments, scalawags, and carpetbaggers. On January 1st 1863, the Emancipation came into effect. It was a proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln that declared freedom for all slaves in states still in rebellion against the federal government. This meant that more slaves could live a free life again, but only until the Black Codes were passed. Without the blacks’ contributions to the Civil War and Reconstruction, things could have turned out a lot different. As for life after the Civil War and Reconstruction, there were many social changes. These were mostly in support of the blacks, until the start of the 20th century. Thanks to the protection of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, blacks relished a period of time during which they could vote, have a say in politics, acquire land, find a job, and make use of public accommodations. They were able to legally marry, worship how they wanted, and could form private clubs, along with other rights. This was until the 1890s, which is when the southern states began coming up with ways to exclude blacks once again. In response to this, many blacks moved into the Northern states, and some even went back to Africa. One of the parts of their lives that didn’t change much was that the majority of southern blacks remained in poverty because sharecropping didn’t earn them enough money to improve their conditions. Despite this progress socially, there were many more rights the blacks didn’t have, but the whites did. These hard times for African Americans continued into the 20th century, which is when the Civil Rights Movement and other efforts came into play in an attempt to equalize rights between races. As I said before, life for blacks after the Civil War and Reconstruction was somewhat better than life before. Their life still wasn’t impeccable, and it was a long road to equality.

Arab

Arab Introduction No conflict can be uni-polar and always have a root cause, which may have initially instigated the beginning of the divergence. The Arab-Israeli conflict is no different. The existing tension and the perception of conflict existing in the mind of the various parties based on class, religion, gender lines creates tension on both the Israeli and Arab front.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Arab-Israeli Conflict specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The causes of the conflict and the ingrained reason for the conflict have been an issue of debate in the political and scholarly arena over many years. An inquiry into the area to understand the real reasons for the conflict is important from the point of view of international relation scholars. From the very basic understanding, two parties engage in conflict when their point of views differs to the point where no mutually beneficial solution can be attained . Such c onflicts may arise from two close allies or two mutually irreconcilable foes. Therefore, one must understand that social science research on conflict demonstrates various levels of reasons. This multifaceted nature of the causes of conflict makes it one of the most intriguing areas of research for social scientists.  This paper is an attempt to understand the root cause of the conflict between the Arabs and Israelis. In order to delve into the topic one must be aware of the historical background of the conflict and the recent events that have developed related to the conflict. Studying the events related to the conflict is important for it will show the reasons, which are responsible for such a prolonged clash. The paper evaluates the reasons that may have caused the conflict and how researchers today evaluate the causes of the conflict. It will also show the current state of the conflict. Historical Background of Arab-Israeli Conflict Religious Causes The inception of the conflic t was from religious inclinations. The conflict’s root may be found in the difference in religious beliefs that is, Ishmael and not Isaac was the favourite child of Abraham . The myth of the conflict had its origin in the basic beliefs of the Jews and the Muslims. However, this paper cannot dwell any further into the mythological or theological basis of the conflict but rather try to find more concrete, political reasons why this conflict still dominates the scene as one of the longest ongoing political conflict of the world .Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The historical beginning of the Arab-Israeli conflict was in the nineteenth century when the Arab national Movement and the Jewish National Movement gained prominence. The quest for the Jewish homeland begun as a secular movement initially, as it did not receive the commendation of the Jewish religio us sect, for many believed it to be a direct confrontation of the God to establish a state for them and not wait for the Messiah to arrive to show them the right path. However, with the advent of the Zionist movement, the focus of the homeland movement gained greater momentum. In the late 1880s, when the Zionists arrived in Palestine, the two movements were brought in direct altercation for the first time . At the time, Palestine was still under the Ottoman Empire and the success of the Jews settled in the area was determined largely on the policies of the empire. The then ruler, Sultan Abd al-Hamid II, negatively received Zionism and the Jews’ attempts to settle in Palestine. Zionism was viewed with negative attitude even after 1908 for it was believed to be a vehicle of the Europeans to encroach in Middle East and destabilize Istanbul’s position in the region. The end of the Ottoman Empire was marked by political instability, and the central government’s inabi lity to establish its authority on various districts of Ottoman Palestine . The Zionists used various means to establish their movement in opposition to the Ottoman government and established the Jews in Palestine. Therefore, the base for the Jewish homeland was laid in the late Ottoman Empire. However, when the Zionists first tried to settle in Palestine, they faced difficulties from Palestinians. In addition, from the late 1880s, there were reports of increased communal difference between the Palestinians and the Jews in Palestine. Moreover, in 1886, the Palestinians staged the first protest against Jewish settlement efforts in the region. The Muslim leaders like Thir al-Husayni, the Mufti of Jerusalem in 1893, saw the Jewish attempts to buy land and settle in Palestine as an attempt by Jewish settlers to increase their presence in Palestine and were perceived as a direct threat to the Arab community, which then was almost 75% of the total population . Tel Aviv, a completely Jewis h inhabited town was founded in 1909. This was one, among many, demarcations to separate the Jews from the Arabs. The Jews bought land from the Arabs and settled together to build their own community. Only in bigger cities like Gaza, did the two live together.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Arab-Israeli Conflict specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Palestinian national force formed its prominence not until Second World War. However, in the first half of the twentieth century, there evolved another side to the conflict, the incumbent Arab nationalism. In 1901, the ideology of the Arabs towards an Arab Fatherland was developed and discoursed by Negib Azouri, a journalist in the magazine named Arab Independence . British Intervention The beginning of the 1920s saw increased tension in Palestine as the Jewish immigrants grew wary of the way they were treated by the British government and the way the latter had handled the situation. In 1922, Winston Churchil, the then British Colonial Secretary, issued a white paper that further restricted the interpretation of the Balfour Declaration. The white paper directly limited the scope of the Jews making Palestine their â€Å"homeland† and implicitly suggested to restrict migration of Jews into Palestine. This was done by inclusion of an â€Å"economic absorption capacity† in the regulatory policy controlling the immigration of Jewish immigrants in Palestine . The League of Nations too issued its mandate on Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine in 1920 . The British mandate was also approve by the League. The Arab-Israeli conflict reached a new epitome with the First World War that marked a new beginning in the conflict as Great Britain captured the Middle East, including Palestine. Based on their promise of a Jewish homeland to the Zionists in 1917, the British Government through the Balfour Declaration, divided the Palestinians state into Arab an d Jewish territory. This was reestablished through an endorsement by the League of Nations.  This led to greater conflict between the Arab and the Jews in Palestine. The latter faced increased resistance from the Palestinians when they went to purchase land. These protests often took a violent turn.  The ridge drawn by the British deepened the conflict in an already divided region. This was evident in letters written by the High Commissioner of Cairo, Sir Henry McMahon. He, in one of his letters wrote, â€Å"portions of Syria lying to the west of the district[s] of Damascus †¦ [as they] cannot be said to be purely Arab† . The British had already entered into a negotiation with Husseign Ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, and had promised to make him the leader of the first free Arab states. But when Britain defeated Turkey, it did not keep its promise to Hussein .  Further, Britain went into negotiations with France in 1916 to determine how the Turkish borders could be d ivided to form a complementary position for both the European countries.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This was established through a Skyes-Picot agreement of 1916 . In the agreement, it was agreed that the British, French, and the Russians would govern the region around Palestine. However, no mention was made of Jewish homeland or the promised rule to Hussein. This further complicated the Arab situation. In 1917, however, when the cost of the war weighed on British government, Arthur Belfour, the British Foreign Minister sent a letter to a prominent Jewish banker in support of Zionism. The Balfour letter offered support on part of the government for a Jewish homeland in Palestine . The Formation of Israel Israel was formed in 1948 and since then its relation with its neighbour-states has been embittered. One of the main reason for this is possibly the origin of Israel was through war. This war led to almost half of the Palestinian Arabs to migrate from their home and had to move to West Bank and Gaza Strip . These migrants also sought refuge in the neighbouring Arab states like Syri a, Jordan, and Lebanon. The Arab countries in the region were unhappy with the unfolding of the treatment of Israel of fellow Muslims.  Relationship of Israel with neighbouring countries has been strained. In 2003, there was an uneasy peace between Israel, Egypt, and Jordan; however, there was no agreement with Syria and Lebanon . An estimated number of 750,000 Palestinians were displaced in the 1947-49 war from their homes, and none were allowed to return . The Israeli argument was that Palestinians should have taken help from their neighbouring Arab states and not from Israel, which is a Jewish state while the Palestinians argued that they have a rightful place in their own land. Process to ensure peace in the region has been ongoing for a long time, with little result. International community too has shown eagerness and interest to solve the conflict. However, many believe that the corrupt and undemocratic Arab states in the Middle East have given rise to greater conflict in th e region . A possible solution to end the problem would be to bring the Palestinians to justice without hampering the interest of the Israelis, which, however, is almost impossible, as this would also include settling the dispute of Israel with its Arab neighbours. The Arab Israeli war of 1948 was fought between Israel and five other Arab states. This occurred when the Arab nations invaded the territories of Palestine immediately after the declaration of Israel as a free state on 14 May 1948. The United States recognized Israeli Provisional Government in 1947; however, it remained neutral in the 1948 war, through a proclamation of an arms embargo on all the warring nations. The Partition Resolution was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1947 that divided the Great Britain’s Palestinian directive into Jewish and Arab states in 1948 . The full-scale nature of the conflict that we know today, evolved after the formation of Israel as a Jewish state . Six Day War On ce Israel was formed as an independent Jewish state, the Arab world in unison rejected to accept the existence of the state. They also threatened with violent attack and pledged to destroy the state. During this time, many organizations were formed to counter the creation of Israel like Fatah in 1959 and PLO in 1964 under the leadership of Yasser Arafat . In 1967, the tension aggravated as Egypt along with other Arab nations stopped all bilateral talks with international and Israeli counterparts, and stationed a large number of troops along the Israeli border. The tension between the two parties escalated, and in the same year, Israel attacked and won Gaza Strip and Sinai desert from Egypt, West bank from Jordan, and Golan Heights from Syria . After the war was over, Israel was willing to return the acquired lands to Palestine peacefully, but the Arab countries refused to negotiate and continued their fatwa against Israel .  The Six Day War brought a large number of Palestinians u nder the Israeli governance, and there emerged a religious-political debate in Israel aimed to decide on the fate of the newly acquired land. On the other hand, the Arab movement against Israel took a new turn, and it was decided to liberate West Bank and Gaza Strip as the first step to liberating Palestine.  Arthur Goldschmidt pointed out that the US policy in terms of the Israel-Arab conflict was in form of â€Å"shuttle diplomacy† designed by Henry Kissinger, the then Secretary of State of US. The political succession and war that operated in Iraq, Israel, and Syria led to the Rogers Peace Plan prompted by the US .  In 1974, the PLO gave UN an observer status to the Palestinian Arabs and in 1975, the UN declared Zionism as a form of racism . These actions by the UN were considered biased by Israel and it went ahead to recognize UNRWA as a separate organization that was used to send back the Palestinian refugees. In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in which the US played the role of a mediator. However, the negotiation fell apart due to the limited autonomy presented by the Israelis. In the 1990s, Israel denounced to accept PLO as a negotiating agent. In the same decade, PLO left violent movement and strove to form an independent Palestine . In 1994, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was formed with Yasser Arafat as its appointed leader. A negotiation in Oslo led to the negotiation that Israel had to transfer Palestinian land slowly to the PLO. In a period of five years, more than ninety percent of the Palestinian land went under the control of PNA. However, it had a separate repercussion. When Israel withdrew from Palestine, it led to the formation of an extremist organization called Hamas in the mid-1990s that started carrying out a number of terror attacks within Israel. PNA under Arafat did not take any action against these terror groups, instead helped them financially. This continued violence by Palestinian extremist group s led to another obstacle towards a peace process between the Arabs and Israelis.  The failure of the Oslo peace process was mainly due to the inability of both the sides to adhere to the agreement. Protests were voiced on both sides against the negotiating process. The negotiation held at Camp David in 2000 failed too . The process took a violent turn when Ariel Sharon visited the holy temple of Jerusalem, the second Intifada was declared by the Palestinian Authority (PA) .  In 2000, the US mediated to form a final compromise between the two parties. In this negotiation they annexed 97% of Palestine and Gaza to Israelis and gave no right to the Palestinians to return to Israel . The Taba negotiation of 2001 where these points were forwarded ended in another failure . The areas were transferred to PA that was later re-occupied by Israel in 2002 . Israel started construction of a barrier in 2003 in Palestine, which led to a series of suicide attacks on Israel by Palestinian extre mist groups .  In 2005, a new aspect emerged in the tension between Israel and the Arab world when Hamas won the elections in Palestine, which was followed by a series of attacks on Israel from south Lebanon, which led to the Second Lebanon War in 2006. In a more recent development in 2009, US President, Barack Obama, tried to mediate a negotiation between Israel and Palestine . However, during the negotiation the Palestinians maintained that the Israelis had to totally freeze â€Å"the building and expansion of Jewish settlements on Palestinian land, if they are to secure that elusive long-term peace† . This too led to an inevitable failure. The long peacemaking process mediated by the international players, international organizations, and within the two parties have failed again and again over the years. The departure from any potent solution is based on various reasons. The next section is a discussion on the different causes that still afflicts the two parties and hind ers a peacemaking process. An Analysis of the Causes of the Conflict From the review of the past historical events that led to the unfolding of the present Arab-Israeli conflict, the causes for the tension are further presented in this section.  The first root cause for the conflict that is evident from the analysis of the historical facts is the gap in views of the two parties. The wide divergence in the views of the Israeli Jews and the Arabs is one of the main causes of the continued conflict. Palestinians Arabs believe that the Israelis wrongly administered the dispersal of their kin from Palestine in order to meet their end desire of territorial acquisition. On the other hand, Israel’s continuously belligerent and expansionist policies has led to another dilemma. On the other hand, the Israelis believe that the main cause of the problem is the rejection of the Arabs to recognize Palestine as their homeland and the Israelis’ right to exist as an independent state . A second reason that highlights the causes of the conflict is the foreign policy adopted by the Arab countries of the region . Most of the Arab states in the Middle East united in their fight against the Israelis in order to liberate the fellow Palestinians Arabs. However, their ideological unity shattered when one reached the operational level. The states, which were conservative in nature, acknowledged the existence of Israel while the states governed by radical ideologies dismissed Israel’s existence and relied on confrontation. Many scholars believe the continuous confrontation with Israel of the Arab world has also created a divide amongst themselves and the partisan view of the Arabs also lead to continued resistance . The third reason for the instability is the involvement of the international mediators like Great Britain, the US, and the UN. As the Middle East is strategically important for the developed countries, for its abundant oil resources, the great powers ha ve tried to take either side in order to gain favours from the ruling side . For instance, the presence of Great Britain and France in the 1918s has been instrumental in shaping the conflict during the time. Further the involvement of the US and the UN in the 1990s and then in 2000s show how the involvement of the foreign parties has been instrumental in carving the Middle Eastern political scenario .  The repeated involvement of the foreign powers, the ingrained differences between the Arabs and the Israelis, and the inter-Arab relations encumbers the total of the reasons for which the conflict has been going on for so long. Many of the disturbances and wars fought in the region have been due to these factors. For instance, in Gulf War, the involvement of the developed countries has been a salient feature while that in the Six Day War shows the inter-Arab conflict. References Abu-Lughod A., I 1971, The Transformation of Palestine: essays on the origin and development of the Arab -Israeli conflict, Northwestern University Press, Chicago. Attar, R 2009, Arab Israeli conflict, Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace Economics and Development 13, pp. 35-64. Bar-Tal, D 2001, Why Does Fear Override Hope in Societies, Political Psychology 22(3), pp. 601-627. Beydoun, C, Martin, M, Rosenberg, S Smith, E 2009, The Arab-Israel Conflict, The Middle East Journal 63(1), p. 169. Ghazi, AA 2009, Arab-Israeli Conflict, Middle East Journal 63(3), pp. 520-526. Goldschmidt, A 1991, A concise history of the Middle East, Westview Press, Boulder, Col. Liebes, T 1997, Reporting the Arab-Israeli conflict: How hegemony works, Routledge, London. Mahler, GS Mahler, ARW 2010, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: An Introduction and Documentary Reader, Taylor Francis, New York. Pappà ©, I 2006, The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947-1951, I.B.Tauris, London. Quandt, WB 1977, Decade of decisions: American policy toward the Arab-Israeli conflict, 1967-1976, University of California Press, Los Angeles. Quandt, WB 2010, Peace process: American diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli conflict since 1967., 2010., Brookings Institution Press, Brookings. Ross, S 2004, Causes and Consequences of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, Evans Brothers, London. Safran, N 1969, From war to war: the Arab-Israeli confrontation, 1948-1967: a study of the conflict from the perspective of coercion in the context of inter-Arab and big power relations, Pegasus, New York. Senker, C 2005, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, Black Rabbit Books, North Mankato, MI. Shlaim, A 1996, The Middle East: The Origins of Arab-Israeli Wars, in Explaining International Relations since 1945, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Smith, CD 1995, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli conflict, St. Martins Press, New York. The Economist 2006, Discrepant historical rhythms. Web. The Economist 2009, No time for Barack Obama to give up. Web. Touval, S 1982, The peace brokers: Mediators in the Arab-Israeli conflict, 1948-1979, Princeton Univer sity Press, Princeton, NJ. United States Department of State 2013, The Arab-Israeli War of 1948. Web.

Bonds Definition and Examples in Chemistry

Bonds Definition and Examples in Chemistry In chemistry, a bond or chemical bond is a link between atoms in molecules  or compounds and between ions and molecules in crystals. A bond represents a lasting attraction between different atoms, molecules or ions. Why Bonds Form Most of bonding behavior can be explained by the attraction between two opposite electrical charge. The electrons of an atom or ion are attracted to their own positively-charged nucleus (containing protons), yet also to the nuclei of nearby atoms. Species that participate in chemical bonds are more stable when the bond is formed, typically because they had an imbalance of charge (greater or fewer number of electrons than protons) or because their valence electrons did not fill or half-fill electron orbitals. Examples of Chemical Bonds The two main types of bonds are  covalent bonds  and  ionic bonds. Covalent bonding is where atoms share electrons more or less equally between each other. In an ionic bond, an electron from one atom spends more time associated with the nucleus and electron orbitals of the other atom (essentially donated). However, pure covalent and ionic bonding is relatively rare. Usually a bond is intermediate between ionic and covalent. In a polar covalent bond, electrons are shared, but the electrons participating in the bond are more attracted to one atom than to the other. Another type of bonding is a metallic bond. In a metallic bond, electrons are donated to an electron sea between a group of atoms. Metallic bonding is very strong, but the fluid nature of the electrons allows for a high degree of electrical and thermal conductivity.

The Climate Change Bill Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Climate Change Bill - Essay Example The IPCC’s primary goal is to coordinate international commitment toward a formulation of strategies aimed at managing the issues that give rise to climate changes.4 This paper critically examines the UK’s Climate Change Bill and whether or not it effectively responds to the issues created by virtue of climate change. The IPCC organized sufficient interest in the dangers posed by climate change to compel the UN’s General Assembly to take the challenge a step further. The result was the organization of an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee which formed the basis for a number of Earth Summits from 1991 to the present.5 There are approximately 200 countries, including the UK that make up the resulting United Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC).6 The definition of climate change can be gleaned from the primary goal of the UNFCC which is as follows: ...a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.8 Since the word anthropogenic in Article 2 of the UNFCC refers to human activity and Article 1 speaks directly to the impact of human activity on climate changes, the UK’s Climate Bill understandably seeks to regulate and modify human conduct. The focus is therefore on that aspect of human activity and conduct that creates the greatest challenges for the environment with respect to climate changes. As gleaned from Article 2 of the UNFCC, gas emissions was identified as the catalyst for climate change. It, therefore, follows that the UK’s Climate Change Bill would concentrate its efforts in that area. In a speech on the Climate Change Bill by Member of Parliament, the Right Honourable Hilary Benn, the MP noted the extent to which individual and collective responsibility is necessary to circumvent the harsh realities of climate change.